Decline of the Ghana and Songhai Empires

Internal Factors

• Political Instability: Succession disputes, weak leadership, loss of central control.
• Administrative Overstretch: Difficulty governing vast territories, collecting taxes, maintaining loyalty.
• Religious Tensions: Introduction of Islam sometimes clashed with traditional beliefs, causing social friction.

External Factors

• Invasions: Ghana weakened by Almoravid incursions (11th century); Songhai fell to Moroccan invasion (1591) and Fulani pressures.
• Trade Shifts: Rise of Atlantic coastal trade diverted commerce from trans-Saharan routes, reducing tax revenue.

Environmental Stress

• Droughts and desertification hurt agriculture, causing food shortages and population stress.

Decline was gradual, not sudden, resulting from the interplay of these factors over centuries.