The Indus Valley Civilization: Cities, Culture, and Legacy (2500–1900 BCE)

Overview

• Flourished: 2500–1900 BCE.
• Region: Indus River basin & Ghaggar-Hakra River valley (NW India, E Pakistan).
• One of three earliest civilizations (with Egypt, Mesopotamia).
• 1,000+ settlements; major cities: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Lothal, Rakhigarhi, Ganeriwala, Mehrgarh.

Urban Planning

• Grid street layout, advanced drainage, multi-story houses, wells, bathrooms.

Economy

• Agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton, sesame).
• Trade with Mesopotamia & Persia.
• Silver/gold coins; standardized weights.

Religion

• Polytheistic; "Pashupati" seal suggests proto-Shiva worship.

Decline Theories

• Climate change/flooding.
• River course shifts.
• Possible Aryan migration.

Legacy

• Writing (Indus script, undeciphered).
• Fired brick architecture, hydraulic engineering.
• Craftsmanship in pottery, jewelry, art.