Germany's Crises in 1918: Internal Collapse and External Defeat

Internal Problems

• Food Shortages: British blockade and strained agriculture caused malnutrition.
• Hyperinflation: War financing printed money; the mark collapsed.
• Political Instability: Rise of SPD, USPD, KPD; strikes, mutinies, councils (Räte) challenged the monarchy.

External Problems

• Military Defeat: Allied Hundred Days Offensive broke the Western Front; German army exhausted.
• Allied Pressure: U.S. entry tipped manpower and material balance.
• Human Cost: Millions dead/wounded; civilian morale shattered.

These crises culminated in the November Revolution, the Kaiser’s abdication, and the Armistice of 11 November 1918.