* Norman Conquest (1066): William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades England and defeats King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings, establishing the Norman dynasty.
* Magna Carta (1215): King John signs the Magna Carta, a charter that limits the power of the monarchy and establishes the principle of due process.
* Wars of the Roses (1455-1485): A series of civil wars between the rival houses of York and Lancaster for the English throne. The wars end with the victory of Henry VII, who founds the Tudor dynasty.
France
* Capetian Dynasty (987-1328): The Capetians are a dynasty of kings that rule France from the late 10th century to the early 14th century.
* Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): A series of conflicts between England and France over the French throne. The war ends with the victory of France, and the English are expelled from the continent.
* Joan of Arc (1412-1431): A French peasant girl who leads the French army to several victories against the English during the Hundred Years' War. She is captured and burned at the stake by the English as a heretic.
Spain
* Reconquista (722-1492): A series of conflicts between the Christian kingdoms of Spain and the Muslim kingdoms of Al-Andalus. The Reconquista ends with the conquest of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella.
* Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834): A tribunal established by the Catholic Monarchs to suppress heresy in Spain. The Inquisition is responsible for the persecution and execution of thousands of people.
* Unification of Spain (1479): The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile unites the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, creating a unified Spain.
Germany
* Holy Roman Empire (962-1806): A large and powerful empire that encompasses much of Central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire is ruled by a series of emperors, who are elected by the princes of the empire.
* Thirty Years' War (1618-1648): A devastating conflict that pits the Protestant states of Europe against the Catholic states of Europe. The war ends with the Peace of Westphalia, which establishes the principle of religious toleration.
* Prussia (1701-1947): A powerful kingdom that emerges in the 18th century. Prussia is ruled by a series of enlightened monarchs, who promote economic and social reforms.
