Why East African Coastal City-States Never United

The Swahili city-states remained politically fragmented due to:

• Lack of shared identity: Autonomous with distinct social/political structures.
• Geographic dispersion: Distance hindered communication and coordination.
• Trade rivalries: Competition for routes and resources outweighed cooperation.
• External interference: Portuguese and Omani empires disrupted unity efforts.
• Internal disunity: Factionalism and power struggles within each city-state.

These factors prevented formation of a unified political entity.