Root Causes of the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821)

The struggle that ended three centuries of Spanish rule stemmed from deep structural contradictions in New Spain:

1. Rigid Caste System (Sociedad de Castas)

Peninsulares (Spanish-born) monopolized high office, military command, and trade. Criollos (American-born Spaniards)—wealthy, educated—were systematically excluded, breeding resentment.

2. Economic Extraction

Mercantilist policies: Monopoly trade (Casa de Contratación), heavy taxes (alcabala, tributo), forced labor (repartimiento), and prohibition of manufacturing competing with Spain. Wealth flowed to Madrid.

3. Criollo Nationalism & Enlightenment

Exposed to Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire, and the US/French Revolutions, Criollo intellectuals (e.g., in Guadalajara literary circles) forged a distinct "Mexican" identity and political philosophy.

4. Napoleonic Catalyst (1808)

Napoleon's invasion of Spain, abdication of Ferdinand VII, and installation of Joseph Bonaparte shattered imperial legitimacy. The power vacuum allowed New Spain's elites to debate sovereignty (juntas vs. viceroy).

5. Popular Grievances

Indigenous & Mestizo masses suffered land loss (hacienda expansion), tribute, debt peonage, and famine (1785-86, 1808-09). Hidalgo/Morelos mobilized this rage.

6. Leadership & Insurrection

Miguel Hidalgo (Grito de Dolores, Sept 16, 1810) → José María Morelos (Congress of Chilpancingo, 1813 Constitution) → Vicente Guerrero + Agustín de Iturbide (Plan de Iguala, 1821) → Independence.