How Mexico Won Independence from Spain: 1808–1821

Mexican independence unfolded in four phases over 13 years, triggered by Napoleon's disruption of Spanish rule.

1. Crisis of Legitimacy (1808–1810)

• Napoleon invades Spain (1808), deposes Ferdinand VII, installs brother Joseph.
• Viceroyalty of New Spain splits: peninsulares vs. criollos; no recognized sovereign.

2. Hidalgo's Popular Revolt (1810–1811)

• Sept 16, 1810: Father Miguel Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores ignites peasant/indigenous uprising.
• 80,000+ march; early victories; but ill-disciplined, crushed at Calderón Bridge (Jan 1811).
• Hidalgo captured, defrocked, executed (July 1811).

3. Morelos's Strategic Campaign (1811–1815)

• José María Morelos (ex-priest, brilliant tactician) organizes disciplined forces.
• Controls southern Mexico; convenes Congress of Chilpancingo (1813) – declares independence, abolishes slavery, caste.
• Captured (1815), executed.

4. Elite Compromise: The Plan of Iguala & Treaty of Córdoba (1821)

• Royalist officer Agustín de Iturbide switches sides; allies with Guerrero (insurgent leader).
• Plan of Iguala (Feb 1821): Three Guarantees – Independence, Catholicism, Unity (criollos + peninsulares).
• Treaty of Córdoba (Aug 1821): Last viceroy O'Donojú ratifies independence.
• Sept 27, 1821: Army of Three Guarantees enters Mexico City.

Aftermath

• Iturbide crowned Emperor Agustín I (1822); overthrown 1823.
• Republic established (1824); decades of instability, foreign interventions, territorial losses (Texas, SW US).

Independence was won not by popular revolution alone, but by a creole-royalist pact preserving elite privileges.