Massive stone or brick walls, often several meters thick, fortified with towers and gates. Example: the legendary walls of Troy.
Water-filled trenches surrounding cities, hindering direct assaults. Sparta's moat was reputedly impassable.
Strategic fortifications on high ground or key passes for early warning and harassment.
Disciplined hoplite phalanxes provided near-impenetrable infantry formations.
Leagues like the Delian League united city-states against common threats such as Persia.