Three Major Indigenous Civilizations of Pre-Columbian Mexico

1. The Maya (c. 2000 BCE – 1500 CE)

Flourished across the Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras. Known for:

• Advanced mathematics (including the concept of zero)
• Precise astronomy and calendar systems
• Hieroglyphic writing
• Monumental cities: Tikal, Copán, Chichén Itzá

2. The Aztecs (Mexica) (1325–1521 CE)

Founded Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) in 1325. Built the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, stretching from central Mexico to the Pacific. Notable for:

• Complex tribute-based imperial structure
• Elaborate religious ceremonies and temples
• Chinampa (floating garden) agriculture

3. The Zapotecs (c. 500 BCE – 1521 CE)

Centered in the Valley of Oaxaca. Achievements include:

• Early urban planning at Monte Albán (one of Mesoamerica's first cities)
• Distinctive ceramic art and hieroglyphic writing
• Long-lasting state structure

These civilizations laid the cultural foundations of modern Mexico.