Mexico's Governments in the 1800s: Empires, Republics & Instability

Nineteenth-century Mexico cycled through five distinct constitutional regimes—two empires and three republics—reflecting intense ideological, regional, and foreign-intervention struggles.

1. First Mexican Empire (1821–1823)
   Agustín de Iturbide, independence hero, crowned Emperor Agustín I. Lasted 10 months. Overthrown by republican Plan of Casa Mata.
2. Federal Republic of Mexico (1824–1835)
   1824 Constitution: Federalism, 19 states + 5 territories, Catholic state religion. Presidency of Guadalupe Victoria (first). Chronic coups, financial chaos.
3. Centralist Republic (1835–1846)
   1835 "Siete Leyes" replaced federalism with unitary state. States → departments. Triggered Texas Revolution (1836), Yucatán separatism. Santa Anna dominant.
4. Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867)
   French intervention (Napoleon III) installed Austrian Archduke Maximilian I. Liberal resistance (Juárez) + US pressure (post-Civil War) → French withdrawal → Maximilian executed (1867).
5. Restored Republic (1867–1917)
   Juárez (1867–72), Lerdo (1872–76), then Porfiriato (1876–1911) under Porfirio Díaz — "order and progress" via authoritarian modernization. 1910 Revolution ended it; 1917 Constitution still in force.

Underlying Dynamics

• Liberal vs. Conservative: Federalism, anticlericalism, civil liberties vs. centralism, church privileges, hierarchy.
• Regionalism: Strong state/caudillo power vs. weak center.
• Foreign intervention: Spain (reconquest attempts), USA (1846–48 war, lost 55% territory), France (1862–67).
• Economy: Silver, land, debt — shaped alliances and wars.

Mexico's 19th century was a laboratory of constitutional experimentation—each regime trying, failing, and being replaced by force.