How Mexico Won Independence from Spain (1810–1821)

Mexico's independence was an 11-year struggle marked by shifting alliances, social upheaval, and eventual political compromise.

1. Colonial Grievances (Pre-1810)

After 300 years of Spanish rule, criollos (American-born Spaniards) resented exclusion from high office, while indigenous and mixed-race populations suffered exploitation, forced labor, and tribute demands.

2. The Spark: Grito de Dolores (Sept 16, 1810)

Priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang his church bell in Dolores, calling for rebellion against "bad government." His multi-ethnic army scored early victories but was crushed; Hidalgo was executed in 1811.

3. Morelos and the Congress of Chilpancingo (1811–1815)

José María Morelos led a more organized campaign, convened a congress that declared independence (1813), and drafted a constitution. He was captured and executed in 1815.

4. Guerrilla Phase (1815–1820)

Resistance fragmented into regional bands led by Vicente Guerrero (south) and Guadalupe Victoria (Veracruz). Spanish control held cities; countryside was contested.

5. The Turn: Iturbide and the Plan of Iguala (1821)

Royalist officer Agustín de Iturbide switched sides, allying with Guerrero. Their Plan of Iguala proclaimed: Independence, Religion (Catholicism), Unity (criollos + peninsulares). The Army of the Three Guarantees swept the country.

6. Treaty of Córdoba (Aug 24, 1821)

Spanish Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed, recognizing Mexican independence under a constitutional monarchy.

7. Entry into Mexico City (Sept 27, 1821)

Iturbide entered triumphantly. September 27 is celebrated as Independence Day (though the Grito on Sept 16 is the national fiesta).

Post-independence instability followed—empire, republic, coups—but the 1821 break was definitive.