- Belgian Congo (present-day Democratic Republic of Congo): The Belgian Congo was a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960. During the early 20th century, the Belgian Congo was subjected to harsh and exploitative colonial rule, characterized by forced labor, oppressive taxation, and human rights abuses. The extraction of valuable resources such as rubber and copper for export generated significant profits for Belgium.
- French West Africa (Afrique Occidentale Française, AOF): French West Africa was a group of French colonies in West Africa, consisting of present-day Senegal, Mauritania, French Sudan (present-day Mali), Guinea, Ivory Coast (present-day Côte d'Ivoire), and Niger. The AOF was established in 1895 and dissolved in 1958. The French colonial rule in West Africa was marked by economic exploitation, political suppression, and the imposition of French culture and language.
- German South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika): German South-West Africa was a German colony in southwestern Africa, comprising the present-day countries of Namibia and parts of South Africa. The German colonial administration implemented policies of racial segregation and discrimination against the indigenous African population. The territory experienced conflicts between German settlers and the indigenous communities, notably the Herero and Nama peoples, resulting in violent clashes and genocide.
- Portuguese colonies: Portugal had several colonies in Africa, including Portuguese Guinea (present-day Guinea-Bissau), Cape Verde, Angola, Mozambique, and São Tomé and Príncipe. The Portuguese maintained colonial control through military occupation and economic exploitation of these territories.
- British colonies: Britain had numerous colonies and protectorates in Africa, including Nigeria, Gold Coast (present-day Ghana), Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Kenya. British colonial rule was characterized by the introduction of Western-style education, Christianity, and infrastructure development, but it also involved suppression of African cultural practices and political rights.
In summary, Africa during the construction of the Panama Canal was marked by European colonization, exploitation of resources, repressive policies, and resistance movements. African countries faced significant challenges and struggled for their eventual independence and self-determination.
