Spain's Rule Over Mexico: 1519–1821, From Conquest to Independence

Spain controlled the territory of modern Mexico for just over 300 years, from the arrival of Hernán Cortés to the culmination of the Mexican War of Independence.

Key Phases

1. Conquest (1519–1521)

• Feb 1519: Cortés lands at Veracruz with ~500 men, horses, cannons.
• Nov 1519: Enters Tenochtitlan (Aztec capital) as guest of Moctezuma II.
• Jun 1520: La Noche Triste—Spanish expelled after Moctezuma's death.
• Aug 13, 1521: Fall of Tenochtitlan after 93-day siege. Aztec Empire collapses.

2. Colonial Era: New Spain (1521–1821)

• Viceroyalty of New Spain established (1535); capital: Mexico City (built on Tenochtitlan ruins).
• Territory expanded north (modern US Southwest, California, Texas) and south (Central America to Costa Rica).
• Economy: Silver mining (Zacatecas, Guanajuato), haciendas, encomienda/repartimiento labor, Manila Galleon trade (Asia-Americas-Europe).
• Society: Caste system (Peninsulares, Criollos, Mestizos, Indios, African slaves).
• Culture: Syncretic Catholicism, Spanish language, mestizo identity.

3. Road to Independence (1808–1821)

• 1808: Napoleon invades Spain; Ferdinand VII deposed → crisis of legitimacy.
• 1810: Miguel Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores sparks insurgency.
• 1811–1820: Guerrilla war; leaders Hidalgo, Morelos, Guerrero, Vicente Guerrero executed or captured.
• 1820: Liberal revolution in Spain reinstates 1812 Constitution; Mexican conservatives switch sides to preserve privileges.
• 1821: Agustín de Iturbide's Plan of Iguala (Three Guarantees: Independence, Religion, Unity) unites royalists and insurgents.
• Sept 27, 1821: Army of Three Guarantees enters Mexico City.
• Sept 28, 1821: Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire signed.

Legacy

Three centuries of Spanish rule left Mexico with:

• Spanish language (98% speakers) and Catholicism (~78%).
• Legal system (civil law), land tenure patterns, urban grid planning.
• Deep social inequalities rooted in colonial caste system.
• A mestizo national identity forged from Indigenous and European roots.

Mexico's independence was not a clean break but a negotiated transition that preserved elite structures—a legacy still debated today.