Divergent Fates: Cuba, Puerto Rico & the Philippines After 1898

The 1898 Settlement

Spain ceded all three to the US (Treaty of Paris). What followed were three distinct political trajectories.

Cuba: Nominal Independence, Heavy US Influence

• 1902: Formal independence as Republic of Cuba.
• Platt Amendment (1901–1934): US right to intervene militarily, lease Guantánamo Bay, veto Cuban treaties.
• Economy: US capital dominated sugar, tobacco, utilities; Cuban elite partnered; structural dependency.
• Culture: US education, media, consumerism introduced; Cuban identity (afrocubanismo, nationalism) resisted assimilation.
• 1959: Revolution ended US neo-colonial era.

Puerto Rico: Territory & Assimilation Pressure

• 1898–present: Unincorporated US territory.
• 1917: Jones Act — US citizenship (statutory, not constitutional).
• No vote for President; no voting Congress rep.
• Assimilation policy: English-only schools (1900s–1940s), US legal/political institutions imposed.
• Economy: Shifted from diversified agriculture to US-linked manufacturing (Section 936), then pharma/tech; persistent inequality.
• Identity: Bilingual, bicultural; strong Puerto Rican nationalism coexists with statehood/independence/free association debates.

Philippines: Colonial War → Promised Independence

• 1899–1902 (–1913): Philippine–American War — brutal insurrection against US rule; 200K+ Filipino civilians dead.
• 1907: Elected Philippine Assembly (limited autonomy).
• 1916: Jones Law — pledge of eventual independence.
• 1935: Commonwealth — 10-year transition.
• 1946: Full independence (July 4).
• Culture: Resisted assimilation; retained Tagalog-based national language, Catholic identity, distinct literary tradition.

Summary Comparison